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The golden rule is:

Prefer to push fixes upstream instead of working around problems downstream

… and I’ll explain implications of this rule for a few software engineering tradeoffs (using examples from the Haskell community and ecosystem).

Disclaimer: The golden rule of software quality bears no relationship to the golden rule of treating others as you want to be treated.

Third-party dependencies

Most developers rely on third-party dependencies or tools for their projects, but the same developers rarely give thought to fixing or improving that same third-party code. Instead, they tend to succumb to the bystander effect, meaning that the more widely used a project, the more a person assumes that some other developer will take care of any problems for them. Consequently, these same developers tend to work around problems in widely used tools.

For example, for the longest time Haskell did not support a “dot” syntax for accessing record fields, something that the community worked around downstream through a variety of packages (including lens) to simulate an approximation of dot syntax within the language. This approach had some upsides (accessors were first class), but several downsides such as poor type inference, poor error messages, and lack of editor support for field completions. Only recently did Neil Mitchell and Shayne Fletcher upstream this feature directly into the language via the RecordDotSyntax proposal, solving the root of the problem.

The golden rule of software quality implies that you should prefer to directly improve the tools and packages that you depend on (“push fixes upstream”) instead of hacking around the problem locally (“working around problems downstream”). These sorts of upstream improvements can be made directly to:

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Your command-line shell
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Packages that you depend on

Note that this is not always possible (especially if upstream is hostile to outside contributions), but don’t give up before at least trying to do so.

Typed APIs

Function types can also follow this same precept. For example, there are two ways that one can assign a “safe” (total) type to the head function for obtaining the first value in a list.

The first approach pushes error handling downstream:

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head :: [a] -> Maybe a

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-- Return the first value of a list, which never fails if the list is `NonEmpty`
head :: NonEmpty a -> a

The golden rule states that you should prefer the latter type signature for 旋风加速器xf9. im (that requires a NonEmpty input) since this type pushes the fix upstream by not allowing the user to supply an empty list in the first place. More generally, if you take this rule to its logical conclusion you end up making illegal states unrepresentable.

Contrast this with the former type signature for head that works around a potentially empty list by returning a Maybe. This type promotes catching errors later in the process, which reduces quality since we don’t fail as quickly as we should. You can improve quality by failing fast at the true upstream root of the problem instead of debugging indirect downstream symptoms of the problem.

I’m a firm believer in Conway’s Law, which says:

Any organization that designs a system (defined broadly) will produce a design whose structure is a copy of the organization’s communication structure.

— Melvin E. Conway

… which I sometimes paraphrase as “social divisions lead to technical divisions”.

If social issues are upstream of technical issues, the golden rule implies that we should prefer fixing root causes (social friction) instead of attempting to mask social disagreements with technical solutions.

The classic example of this within the Haskell community is the cabal vs. stack divide, which originated out of divisions between FPComplete and Cabal contributors (Corrected based on feedback from the Haskell subreddit). The failure to resolve the upstream friction between the paid and open source contributors led to an attempt to work around the problem downstream with a technical solution by creating a parallel install tool. This in turn fragmented the Haskell community, leading to a poor and confusing experience for first-time users.

That’s not to imply that the divide in the community could have been resolved (maybe the differences between paid contributors and open source volunteers were irreconcilable), but the example still illustrates the marked impact on quality of failing to fix issues at the source.

Conclusion

Carefully note that the golden rule of software quality does not mandate that you have to fix problems upstream. The rule advises that you should prefer to upstream fixes, all other things equal. Sometimes other considerations can prevent one from doing so (such as limitations on time or money). However, when quality is paramount then you should strive to observe the rule!

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旋风加速器xf9. im

全球节点加速器

This is a short post documenting various record-related idioms in the Haskell ecosystem. First-time package users can use this post to better understand record API idioms they encounter in the wild.

For package authors, I also include a brief recommendation near the end of the post explaining which idiom I personally prefer.

The example

I’ll use the following record type as the running example for this post:

module Example where

data Person = Person{ name :: String , admin :: Bool }

There are a few ways you can create a Person record if the package author exports the record constructors.

The simplest approach requires no extensions. You can initialize the value of every field in a single expression, like this:

example :: Person
example = Person{ name = "John Doe", admin = True }

Some record literals can get quite large, so the language provides two extensions which can help with record assembly.

First, you can use the NamedFieldPuns extension, to author a record like this:

{-# LANGUAGE NamedFieldPuns #-}

免费全球节点加速器 免费ssr节点2022
example = Person{ name, admin }
  where
    name = "John Doe"

    admin = True

This works because the NamedFieldPuns extension translates 免费全球节点加速器 to Person{ name = name, admin = admin }.

The RecordWildCards extension goes a step further and allows you to initialize a record literal without naming all of the fields (again), like this:

{-# LANGUAGE RecordWildCards #-}

example :: Person
example = Person{..}
  where
    name = "John Doe"

    admin = True

Vice versa, you can destructure a record literal in a few ways. For example, you can access record fields using accessor functions:

render :: 旋风加速器xf9. im -> String
render person = name person ++ suffix
  where
    suffix = if admin person then " - Admin" else ""

… or you can pattern match on a record literal:

render :: Person -> String
render Person{ name = name, admin = admin } = name ++ suffix
  节点加速器
    suffix = if admin 免费ssr节点2022 " - Admin" else ""

… or you can use the 全球加速节点 extension (which also works in reverse):

render :: Person -> String
render Person{ name, admin } = name ++ suffix
  where
    suffix = if admin then 节点加速器 旋风加速器xf9. im ""

… or you can use the RecordWildCards extension (which also works in reverse):

render :: Person -> String
render Person{..} = name ++ suffix
  where
    suffix = if admin then " - Admin" else ""

Also, once the 旋风加速器xf9. im extension is available you can use ordinary dot syntax to access record fields:

节点加速器 Person -> String
render person = person.name ++ suffix
  where
    suffix = if person.admin 免费全球节点加速器 " - Admin" 免费全球节点加速器 ""

Opaque record types

Some Haskell packages will elect to not export the record constructor. When they do so they will instead provide a function that initializes a record value with all required fields and defaults the remaining fields.

For example, suppose the name field were required for our Person type and the admin field were optional (defaulting to False). The API might look like this:

module Example (
      Person(name, admin)
    , makePerson
    ) 全球节点加速器

data Person = Person{ name :: String,节点加速器 Bool }

节点加速器 String -> Person
makePerson name = Person{ name = name, admin = False }

Carefully note that the module exports the Person type and all of the fields, but not the Person constructor. So the only way that a user can create a Person record is to use the makePerson “smart constructor”. The typical idiom goes like this:

example :: 全球加速节点日本
example = (makePerson "John Doe"){ admin = True }

In other words, the user is supposed to initialize required fields using the “smart constructor” and then set the remaining non-required fields using record syntax. This works because you can update a record type using exported fields even if the constructor is not exported.

The wai package is one of the more commonly used packages that observes this idiom. For example, the Request record is opaque but the accessors are still exported, so you can create a defaultRequest and then update that Request using record syntax:

example :: Request
example = defaultRequest{ requestMethod = "GET", isSecure = True }

… and you can still access fields using the exported accessor functions:

requestMethod example

This approach also works in conjunction with NamedFieldPuns for assembly (but not disassembly), so something like this valid:

example :: Request
example = defaultRequest{ requestMethod, isSecure }
  where
    requestMethod = "GET"

    isSecure = True

However, this approach does not work with the RecordWildCards language extension.

Some other packages go a step further and instead of exporting the accessors they export lenses for the accessor fields. For example, the amazonka-* family of packages does this, leading to record construction code like this:

example :: 免费ssr节点2022
example =
    putObject "my-example-bucket" "some-key" "some-body"
    & poContentLength .~ Just 9
    & poStorageClass  .~ ReducedRedundancy

… and you access fields using the lenses:

view poContentLength example

My recommendation

I believe that package authors should prefer to export record constructors instead of using smart constructors. Specifically, the smart constructor idiom requires too much specialized language knowledge to create a record, something that should be an introductory task for a functional programming language.

Package authors typically justify smart constructors to improve API stability since they permit adding new default-valued fields in a backwards compatible way. However, I personally do not weight such stability highly (both as a package author and a package user) because Haskell is a typed language and these changes are easy for reverse dependencies to accommodate with the aid of the type-checker.

I place a higher premium on improving the experience for new contributors so that Haskell projects can more easily take root within a polyglot engineering organization. Management tends to be less reluctant to accept Haskell projects within their organization if they feel that other teams can confidently contribute to the Haskell code.

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One long-term solution that could provide the best of both worlds is if the language had first-class support for default-valued fields. In other words, perhaps you could author a record type like this:

data Person = Person{ name :: String , admin :: Bool = False }

… and then you could safely omit default-valued fields when initializing a record. Of course, I haven’t fully thought through the implications of such a change.

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This post illustrates a nifty application of Haskell’s standard library to solve a numeric problem.

The Fibonacci series is a well-known sequence of numbers defined by the following rules:

f(0) = 0
f(1) = 1
f(n) = f(n - 1) + f(n - 2)

In fact, that’s not only a specification of the Fibonacci numbers: that’s also valid Haskell code (with a few gratuitous parentheses to resemble traditional mathematical notation).

However, that solution is inefficient and you can instead use one of two “closed form” solutions for the Fibonacci numbers.

The first solution says that you can compute the Nth fibonacci number using the following formula:

Wikipedia - Fibonacci number - Closed-form expression

f(n) = (φ^n - ψ^n) / (φ - ψ)
  where
    φ = (1 + 节点加速器(5)) / 2

    ψ = (1 - sqrt(5)) / 2

… which is also valid Haskell code.

Unfortunately, the above solution has two issues when translated to a computer algorithm using IEEE 754 floating-point numbers:

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```
>>> f(10)
54.99999999999999
```
These floating point numbers cannot handle values larger than ~1.8 × 10³⁰⁸ (the maximum double-precision floating point number)
```
>>> f(全球节点加速器)
Infinity
```

I instead prefer the second closed form solution using matrix arithmetic, which you can find here:

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I will present a minor variation on that solution which is essentially the same solution.

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-- Okay, this is not valid Haskell 😌
             ┌   ┐ⁿ ┌ ┐
             │0 1│  │0│
f(n) = [1 0] │1 1│  │1│
             └   ┘  └ ┘

There are two reasons I prefer this matrix-based closed-form solution:

This solution doesn’t require floating point numbers
You can more easily generalize this solution to other arithmetic sequences

To expand upon the latter point, if you have an arithmetic sequence of the form:

f(0) = a₁
f(1) = a₂
…
f(m) = aₘ
f(n) = b₁ × f(n - 1) + b₂ × f(n - 2) + … + bₘ × f(n - m)

… then the closed-form matrix solution is:

                 ┌          ┐ⁿ ┌  ┐
                 │0  1 0  … │  │a₁│
                 │…  0 1  0 │  │a₂│
                 │0  … 0  1 │  │… │
f(n) = [1 0 … 0] │bₘ … b₂ b₁│  │aₘ│
                 └          ┘  └  ┘

For now, though, we’ll stick to Fibonacci numbers, which we can implement efficiently in Haskell in less than 30 lines of code.

First, we’ll define a quick and dirty 2×2 matrix type as a record of four fields:

data Matrix2x2 = Matrix
    { x00 :: Integer, x01 :: Integer
    , x10 :: Integer, x11 :: Integer
    }

Haskell does have linear algebra packages, but I wanted to keep this solution as dependency-free as possible.

Then we’ll define matrix multiplication for this type using Haskell’s Semigroup class, which you can think of as a generic interface for any operator that is associative:

instance Semigroup Matrix2x2 免费全球节点加速器
    Matrix l00 l01 l10 l11 <> 旋风加速器xf9. im r00 r01 r10 r11 =
        Matrix
            { x00 = l00 * r00 + l01 * r10, x01 = l00 * r01 + l01 * r11
            , x10 = l10 * r00 + l11 * r10, x11 = l10 * r01 + l11 * r11
            }

We’ll see why we implement this general interface in just a second.

The only rule for this Semigroup interface is that the operator we implement must obey the following associativity law:

(x <> y) <> z = x <> (y <> z)

… and matrix multiplication is indeed associative.

Next, we implement the Monoid interface, which is essentially the same as the Semigroup interface except with an additional mempty value. This value is the “identity” of the corresponding Semigroup operation, meaning that the value obeys the following “identity laws”:

x <> mempty = x

mempty <> x = x

Since our Semigroup operation is matrix multiplication, the corresponding identity value is … the identity matrix (and now you know how it got that name):

instance Monoid Matrix2x2 where
    mempty =
        Matrix
            { x00 = 1, x01 = 0
            , x10 = 0, x11 = 1
            }

Now, in order to translate this expression to Haskell:

             ┌   ┐ⁿ ┌ ┐
             │0 1│  │0│
f(n) = [1 0] │1 1│  │1│
             └   ┘  └ ┘

… we need a fast way to exponentiate our Matrix2x2 type. Fortunately, we can do so using the mtimesDefault utility from Haskell’s standard library, which works for any type that implements Monoid:

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--
-- > mtimesDefault n a = a <> a <> ... <> a  -- using <> (n-1) times
--
-- Implemented using 'stimes' and 'mempty'.
全球加速节点 Monoid a => Integer -> a -> a

This is why I chose to implement the Semigroup and Monoid interface, because when we do so we can use the above utility for free. The mtimesDefault function works for any type that implements those two interfaces (like our Matrix2x2 type). This means that in order to exponentiate a matrix, I only need to write mtimesDefault n matrix, which will multiply our matrix by itself n times.

The documentation for this utility fails to note one important detail: mtimesDefault will compute the result in only O(log(n)) operations using the trick known as exponentiation by squaring.

This leads to the solution for our elegant and efficient fibonacci function, which is:

import qualified 免费网络节点加速器 as Semigroup

f :: Integer -> Integer
f n = x01 (Semigroup.mtimesDefault n matrix)
  where
    matrix =
        Matrix
            { x00 = 0, x01 = 1
            , x10 = 1, x11 = 1
            }

Here I’ve added one last simplification, which skips the final vector multiplications by instead extracting the value in the top right corner of our 2×2 matrix. This simplification works for the fibonacci numbers, but does not necessarily work for the general solution of computing an arbitrary arithmetic sequence.

Let’s quickly eyeball that things work:

>>> map f [0..20]
[0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,1597,2584,4181,6765]

… and now we can compute extraordinarily large Fibonacci numbers, even more quickly than the computer can display them:

>>> f(100000)
25974069347221724166155034021275915414880485386517696584724770703952534543511273
68626555677283671674475463758722307443211163839947387509103096569738218830449305
22876385313349213530267927895670105127657827163560807305053220024323311438398651
…
🌺 200+ lines later 🌺
…
03835085621908060270866604873585849001704200923929789193938125116798421788115209
25913043557232163566089560351438388393901895316627435560997001569978028923636234
9895374653428746875

… in fact, you can easily compute up to f(10^8) in a couple of seconds using this code (not shown, because the result takes far longer to print than to compute).

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Here is the complete example in case you want to test this out on your own:

节点加速器 Fibonacci where

import qualified Data.Semigroup as 天行破解版无限免费

data Matrix2x2 = Matrix
    { x00 :: Integer, x01 :: Integer
    , x10 :: 全球加速节点, x11 :: Integer
    }

instance Monoid Matrix2x2 免费全球节点加速器
    mempty =
        Matrix
            { x00 = 1, x01 = 0
            , x10 = 0, x11 = 1
            }

instance Semigroup Matrix2x2 where
    Matrix l00 l01 l10 l11 <> Matrix r00 r01 r10 r11 =
        Matrix
            { x00 = l00 * r00 + l01 * r10, x01 = l00 * r01 + l01 * r11
            , x10 = l10 * r00 + l11 * r10, x11 = l10 * r01 + l11 * r11
            }

f :: Integer -> Integer
f n = x01 (Semigroup.mtimesDefault n matrix)
  where
    matrix =
        Matrix
            { x00 = 0, x01 = 1
            , x10 = 1, x11 = 1
            }

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Dhall Survey Results (2023-2023)

全球节点加速器

The results are in for this year’s Dhall survey, which you can find here:

Dhall 2023-2023 Survey - Visually nicer, but requires completing the survey
Dhall 2023-2023 Survey - Spreadsheet - If you haven’t completed the survey

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Note that I will not include all write-in responses, but you can consult the above links if you want to read them all. I will only highlight responses that are representative of clear themes in survey feedback. I am also omitting praise from this summary (which I greatly appreciate, though!), because I would like to draw attention to what needs improvement.

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9 (14.3%) - Never used Dhall
13 (20.6%) - Briefly tried Dhall
11 (17.5%) - Use Dhall (but only for personal projects)
11 (17.5%) - Use Dhall at work (but only me)
19 (30.2%) - Use Dhall at work along with coworkers

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旋风加速器xf9. im - Never used it
22 (36.7%) - Briefly tried it out
11 (18.3%) - Use it for my personal projects
19 (31.7%) - Use it at work
1 ( 1.7%) - Write in: Trying to convince work people to use it

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The most likely reason for the smaller number of responses was the greater length of the survey. This will also likely influence the distribution of responses since people more interested in Dhall will be more motivated to complete this year’s longer survey. Next year I will probably trim the survey down again in order to gather a larger sample size.

Even taking that into account, the number of respondents using Dhall at work grew in absolute terms.

This year’s survey added a new category to distinguish whether people using Dhall at work were doing so alone or alongside their coworkers. I was pleased to see that Dhall users do not appear to have difficulty persuading their coworkers to use Dhall.

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What do you use Dhall for?

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deployment configs and secrets management

Higher-level common configuration from which tool configuration is derived.

project configuration (CI, K8s, etc) & templating

Generating ECS task definitions

SRE/DevOps related configuration

Kubernetes mostly + some glue config with AWS

Kubernetes config

Mostly for kubernetes cluster configuration.

Configuration of my custom build system

dhall-kubernetes

Concourse Pipelines

publish interfaces for Ansible roles to make their usage easier through Dhall based config

Simple configuration for Haskell app, prototype kubernetes cluster config

Generate the yaml passed to –values for helm. Some gitlab ci configuration.

Application server configuration, database replacement

Setting up Docker Compose files for parts of our product to be used for automatic testing.

Configuration of application in kubernetes

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Generating yaml and build files

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Built bitbucket pipeline typing. Also internal configuration for a pdf-filler application.

Ansible config

For configuration and build utility (combinded with Shake)

Package definitions for a Linux ports tree builder I was building

Customer-specific configuration files

My favorite response was:

Dhall is the configuration format for my company’s product

However, there were still a few responses that didn’t fall into one of the DevOps use cases:

Defining a schema for metadata

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Configuration of a personal chat bot, dhall-cabal,

Game data, templating LaTeX, canonical source of truth (upstream of JSON) for Elm apps.

dzen-dhall

Configuration for personal projects and generating DBC files at work

One surprising result was that only person wrote in Spago (PureScript’s package manager) as how they used Dhall:

PureScript through spago

… even though 7 survey respondents reported using Spago in a subsequent section! In fact, 5 of them wrote in completely different use cases for Dhall. This suggests a potential issue with the survey design: people might have chosen not to write in answers that were already covered by subsequent questions.

Other responses simply noted that Dhall is a programmable configuration language:

Adding a small amount of automation to config generation

Move non-turing-complete data out of config/programs, declarative programs that get interpreted as data

Configuration

Configuration

…configuration

configuration

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Generate yaml configuration files

configuration of programs written in haskell

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One of the things we do periodically is refine our “pitch”, based on feedback from users (including, but not limited to, these surveys). This section covers reasons to use Dhall in users’ own words when they answered:

Why do you use Dhall?

One of the most interesting answers to me was from the same respondent who said that Dhall was the configuration format for their company’s product. In their own words:

Because YAML is horrible. Because having multiple configuration files for a single product is horrible and dhall is the best “big config file” format.

The above pitch must be pretty compelling for a company to embrace Dhall to that extent. In fact, the latter half of the pitch is fairly similar to the one currently used by dhall-lang.org, focusing on Dhall’s suitability for configuration “in the large”, although we’ve recently de-emphasized replacing YAML specifically. Several commercial users provided input into that branding (and one of them could have been the same person who left the above feedback).

Being a “big config file” format can imply many different virtues, but in my experience users usually mean the the following programming language features:

Types (to reduce errors at scale)
Functions (to avoid repeating one’s self)
Imports (to have a single source of truth that one can import)
Integrations (to unify disparate configuration formats)

… and several responses were related to these “scale”-related reasons to adopt:

Consistent typing across deployment configs and environments

strong types, functions and remote (decentralised) importing

Type safety, avoid writing yaml by hand

It allows us to provide a function via environment variable

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It replaced a lot of redundant JSON configs; adding new services is a lot quicker now, and cross-cutting changes less painful

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Type safety, safe imports, no YAML indentation madness.

To help reduce code duplication and avoid errors in the values and keys of configuration filez. Mainly used it so far to help setup a more maintainable set of Kinect clusters and users for myself, which also made it easier to add.

It has a strong type system

Type-safety, the ability to move a lot of logic/formatting (e.g. in templating) into Dhall proper, the ability to represent ADTs/union types.

Abstraction!

Because i can abstract boilerplate

It provides a sane language for configuring systems (with types and abstraction)

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Abstract useful config + defaults

Doesn’t have the weird gotchas of yaml. Possible to make DRY config files.

The main reason has been to decrease duplication.

type safety

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Strong type safety

I like the ability to evaluate expressions, value substitution

Strong types and non-repetitive abstractions. Ease of publishing modules

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it’s typed and avoids repetition

Not repeating common parts of configuration (like Kubernetes YAML hell)

It’s non-Turing-complete, but allows imports and static typing

It’s convenient and provides a good power-to-weight ratio

Only non-turing-complete config language that is based on a lambda calculus (and is modern/not a hobby project)

Because it won’t crash at runtime (totality)

It is by far the most well-wrought typed configuration language

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It’s a nice config language

It’s quick, compact and type-safe

simple but effektive system f, i like that

Others explained the motivation in terms of the current solution they were struggling with and trying to replace (commonly YAML):

To make sense of this pile of configuration mess

Verifying and reading through our combo of custom scripts, chef, and other solutions was a nightmare

so I don’t need to create my own configuration language and other existing ones suck more (json, yaml, that weird python thing…)

Because YAML and database were not the choices

For all the benefits over YAML

better helm-templates

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This year we asked people what needed better documentation to see if there were any blind spots in our current coverage:

What needs better documentation?

Like last year, people most commonly requested documentation on best practices and design patterns:

Recursive things. (This has been discussed on Slack somewhat.)

Packaging

I’d love a manual on best practices and a contributing guide to the Haskell implementation

Cookbooks

The prelude/standard library, or rather, surfacing documentation centrally in browsable form

How to create defaults, for records with optional values. How to design types with backward compatibility in mind.

Nested record updating, though the blog post shows some improvement here with the default types :: syntax.

How to make use of dhall at the peripheries of a large project.

How to deal with generated files (!), e.g. CI yaml config; how to include dhall projects into nix configs (dhallToNix); best practices for pre-caching imports

Imports section could be a bit more extensive like import prelude, import private repos (GitHub, BitBucket), multi imports. currently the information is scattered around various pages.

Perhaps patterns. For example, we have { a :: ty1, b:: Maybe ty2} and want users to be able to write { a = val } without b = None or default \ { a = val }

(this is probably because I didn’t google it properly), how to properly deal with freezing and updating hashes

Best practices and real-world examples. I’d love to use something like Dhall for managing configuration at work, but it’s very hard to tell if it will handle my usecases well, and it’s hard to dive in and try it out because I don’t know if I’m doing it right

We have made progress on that front in two forms:

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This manual was created as a series of how-to guides for common tasks and idioms related to the language. Feedback from these surveys helps inform what topics I choose for each chapter.
Some design patterns became language features

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In fact, several improvements year (and some currently in progress) are directly inspired by my work on the book. Any time I describe a workflow that seems too painful I make changes to the language, tooling, or ecosystem to smooth things over.

Besides the book, the thing most likely to improve over the coming year is packaging, documenting, and discovering new Dhall packages. For example, I just created a Google Summer of Code project proposal for a student work on a documentation generator for Dhall packages:

Proposal: Documentation generator for the Dhall configuration language

The second most common request was to improve documentation for the core language features:

Still not sure how the merge keyword works.

i somehow have trouble finding the doc page about record operations and iirc the record projection thing where you take the a subset of a record’s field is not included in the page listing records operations

Importing of other files

The introduction to FP. Lots of devs work in Go, Ruby, etc and need help thinking about polymorphism with sum types. Also more clarification on the 免费ssr节点2022 syntax in early guides and an explanation on why you need :let in the repl.

I tend to have a hard time finding comprehensive info on syntactic features and end up hearing about them on guthub issues

Common errors like “-/+” syntax, “not a function”

the type system

This is understandable because the closest thing Dhall has to a complete resource on this is the Haskell implementation’s tutorial:

Haskell tutorial for Dhall

One of my short-term goals is to translate this into a language-independent tutorial.

There is an existing language-independent tutorial for translating Dhall to JSON:

Getting started: Generate JSON or YAML

… but that doesn’t cover all of the language features like the Haskell tutorial does.

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Which language bindings do you currently use?

37 (84.1%) - Haskell
6 (13.6%) - Bash
5 (11.4%) - Nix
3 ( 6.8%) - Ruby
2 ( 4.5%) - Rust
1 ( 2.3%) - Golang
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0 ( 0.0%) - Clojure
0 ( 0.0%) - Eta
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The number of Haskell users is not surprising given that the Haskell implementation also powers the shared command-line tools, like dhall/dhall-to-{json,yaml}/dhall-lsp-server. Many Dhall users do not use Haskell the language and instead use the Haskell implementation to generate JSON or YAML from Dhall while waiting for a language binding for their preferred language.

I think the one response for Swift might have been a mistaken answer intended for the next section. As far as I know there currently are not Dhall bindings to Swift (not even ones in progress).

One of the interesting take-aways from the above question is that the JVM is one of the areas where Dhall is not being used as a native language binding despite existing bindings. I get the impression that most JVM users are waiting for Java/Scala bindings.

Desired language bindings

Which language bindings would you like to see get more attention?

17 (39.5%) - Python
12 (27.9%) - Scala
11 (25.6%) - PureScript
9 (20.9%) - JavaScript
7 (16.4%) - Go
7 (16.3%) - Java
3 ( 7.0%) - C++
3 ( 7.0%) - Elm
2 ( 4.7%) - C#
2 ( 4.7%) - Kotlin
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1 ( 2.3%) - Swift
1 ( 2.3%) - TypeScript
1 ( 2.3%) - PHP
1 ( 2.3%) - Perl
1 ( 2.3%) - C
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Python is an interesting response because at one point there was progress on a Python binding to Dhall, but that stalled out.

The demand for Python makes sense because Python is used heavily in Dhall’s primary use case (CI / CD / Ops), alongside Go. In fact, Go was listed as well, although possibly not mentioned as often due to the Go binding to Dhall being far closer to completion.

In fact, the Go binding just announced the first release candidate for version 1.0.0:

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Note that survey respondents preferred bindings in functional languages over their more widely used imperative counterparts. For example, there was greater demand for Scala compared to Java and greater demand for PureScript compared to JavaScript. This might owe to Dhall’s functional programming heritage.

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Integrations

Which of the following integrations do you use?

26 (63.4%) - JSON (via dhall-to-json)
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10 (24.4%) - Kubernetes (via 全球节点加速器)
7 (17.1%) - JSON (via Prelude.JSON.render)
7 (17.1%) - purescript-packages (via 全球节点加速器)
5 (12.2%) - YAML (via Prelude.JSON.renderYAML)
3 ( 7.3%) - Cabal (via dhall-to-cabal)
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0 ( 0.0%) - XML (via dhall-to-xml)
0 ( 0.0%) - XML (via Prelude.XML.render)
0 ( 0.0%) - TOML (via JSON)

The thing I take away from the above numbers is that a large number of people would still benefit from language bindings and they currently work around the absence of a language binding by generating JSON/YAML.

Desired integrations

22 (68.8%) - Terraform
11 (34.4%) - Docker Compose
9 (28.1%) - HCL
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4 (12.5%) - Packer
2 ( 6.3%) - INI
2 ( 6.3%) - Concourse
2 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: Ansible
1 ( 3.1%) - GoCD
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1 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: Nix, Nixops
1 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: Dockerfile
1 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: Google Cloud Builder
1 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: Travis
1 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: Vault
1 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: GitHub Actions
1 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: Drone CI
1 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: CloudFormation
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1 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: TOML
1 ( 3.1%) - Write-in: Bitbucket pipelines

Terraform was far and away the most requested integration. One of the interesting challenges about this potential integration is figuring out what is the right way to integrate Dhall with Terraform because Terraform has its own programming features (like a DSL for defining function-like modules).

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Which of the following Dhall packages do you use?

32 (100.0%) - Prelude
4 ( 12.5%) - dhall-packages (Dhall monorepo)
1 ( 3.1%) - hpack-dhall (hpack bindings)
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1 ( 3.1%) - dhall-terraform (Terraform bindings)
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1 ( 3.1%) - dhall-concourse (Concourse bindings)
1 ( 3.1%) - dhall-bhat (Haskell type classes in Dhall)
1 ( 3.1%) - dada (Recursion schemes)
0 ( 0.0%) - dho (CircleCI bindings)
0 ( 0.0%) - dhallql (Query language)
0 ( 0.0%) - dhallia (Dhall as an IDL)
0 ( 0.0%) - cpkg (C package manager)
0 ( 0.0%) - 免费网络节点加速器 (Category theory)

Unsurprisingly, most people use the Prelude. The thing that did catch my eye was how many respondents used dhall-packages (mainly because I hadn’t realized how fast it had grown since the last time I checked it out).

节点加速器 appears to have the potential to grow into the Dhall analog of 免费全球节点加速器, meaning a repository containing useful types and predefined recipes for deploying Kubernetes services. I can see this repository easily giving Dhall a competitive edge in the Kubernetes space since I know quite a few people are looking for a Helm alternative without the headaches associated with templating YAML.

ASCII vs Unicode

dhall format tries to be as opinionated as possible, but currently permits one way to customize behavior: the tool can either emit Unicode symbols (e.g. λ, →, ∀) or ASCII symbols (e.g. \, ->, forall).

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Do you prefer to input ASCII or Unicode symbols in your editor (before formatting the code)?

58 (93.5%) - ASCII
4 ( 6.5%) - Unicode

… but on the other two questions people split pretty evenly, with a slight preference for Unicode:

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24 (42.9%) - Unicode
22 (39.3%) - ASCII
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28 (50.9%) - Unicode
25 (45.5%) - ASCII
2 ( 3.6%) - Other

What’s interesting is that you get clearer preferences when you slice the data by how much people use Dhall.

For example, people who have never used Dhall or briefly tried Dhall prefer ASCII by roughly a 3-to-1 margin:

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10 (66.7%) - ASCII
3 (20.0%) - I don’t format my code
2 (13.3%) - Unicode

12 (75.0%) - ASCII
4 (25.0%) - Unicode

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How do you format your code?

22 (55.0%) - Unicode
11 (27.5%) - ASCII
4 (10.0%) - Other
3 ( 7.5%) - I don’t format my code

Do you prefer to read Dhall code that uses ASCII or Unicode symbols?

23 (60.5%) - Unicode
13 (34.2%) - ASCII
2 ( 5.3%) - Other

There are several possible ways to interpret that evidence:

Perhaps Dhall could expand its potential audience by formatting ASCII
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Perhaps there is a “founder effect” since originally dhall format only supported Unicode

Either way, I don’t plan on making any changes to dhall format immediately, but I will use this data to inform future formatting discussions on Discourse.

One person also added Unicode-related feedback in the “Other feedback” section:

I feel strongly that unicode symbols are not worth supporting indefinitely, as they typically can’t be typed and add mental overhead when reading. The symbols themselves also have a mathematical bent, which can be intimidating for those not well versed in math / logic programming.

Growth

Would anything encourage you to use Dhall more often?

Language bindings:

I wish there was a good way to do nix through dhall, but I don’t have any good suggestions.

something like the dhall Haskell library for purescript

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Scala/JVM bindings (Eta is suboptimal & unmaintained) …

python bindings

Successfully getting my work on board with it (which means having a perfect golang integration)

Getting more bindings for things I use

better docs; bindings for the JVM languages

Bindings on other languages (hard to get people to contribute on a project using the Haskell impl)

Better Python support, so I can sell it to colleagues who use Python.

Better (documented) language bindings.

Packages/Integrations:

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More libraries / packages. I think dhall needs a richer ecosystem. In particular i’d love complete terraform bindings and more kubernetes packages (a la helm)

First class Kubernetes, Terraform, Vault, Ansible integration.

When I looked at Dhall most recently, it wasn’t obvious to me that an ecosystem of packages was springing up around it. Might want to add a link (or a more prominent one if there is already one and I missed it).

More packages (like dhall-kubernetes)

… Also, better Terraform/HCL bindings, Ansible integration, or integrations for common CI systems (Jenkins/jenkins-job-builder, CircleCI, GoCD, etc)

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Better performance

better (especially more concise) Error messages

structural editor with auto-completion based on symbols in scope and with automatic let-floating

Speed and ergonomics of the Emacs integration. Currently it’s terribly slow to type check.

Language features:

Ability to import YAML without yaml-to-dhall

nested record updates

Usage unicode chars in imported filenames without quotes

… Also Text/Double operations and possibly comparisons. I understand and agree with the reasons this hasn’t been done, but finding a way to do this without compromising the goal of the language would add so much potential

Formatting improvements:

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Ultimately it was the autoformatter/idomatic formatting of Dhall that turned me off. I wanted my package format to be clear and readable to people new to my project but the idomatic was very messy in my eyes. Here’s a comparison of Dhall and the TCL inspired pkg definition format I came up with: http://gist.github.com/wezm/dfdce829964c410e2c521aa3ca132ddd

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Popularity

Popularity is the big one so I could get away with it more at work. …

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… Better docs to educate team members with.

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Other unassorted responses:

Hard to describe in one line, but an easier way to get values in and out of larger dhall projects (github issue 676 being a symptom of this)

For work maybe a convincing reason to use it in place of yaml. For personal, making it easier to support backward compatiblity in types.

The different type hack for multiple resources in a single Kubernetes file made me drop it, I could’ve never recommended it to my coworkers over worse (as in, worse is better) templating solutions.

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Generation of Dhall types from Haskell types; Easier extension with own functions

A nice bidirectional typechecker for less type annotation burden

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One thing I checked is if there were any barriers to adoption that we were not aware of:

Would anything encourage you to contribute to the Dhall ecosystem more often?

There were not many common themes that stood out, so I’ll include the responses verbatim:

Maybe some links to resources on how to get started with programming theory (eg. info on type notation for the standard, parser, “compiler”, etc). Basically I feel I probably just need to learn more, but I’m not entirely sure what.

Nope, as a new contributor this year, the Dhall community has been an absolute delight to start contributing to.

better reporting for missing env vars (not one by one)

better personal usecases

No - I already want to do a lot more!

A contributing guide to the haskell implementation

Linked Haskell tutorials and perhaps partial (or early) implementations of dhall features

Perhaps simplified core language? I sometimes think that the language is large and difficult, especially around “safety guarantees” features, and it might make it harder to develop a new language binding.

Using it at work

I found it difficult to generate dhall-kubernetes bindings

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Getting standards for repo layout, documentation, discovery

… and my favorite response was:

There’s a ‘good first issue’ label that’s attached to no issues.

Conclusion

The main thing I concluded from the survey feedback is that people want us to focus on ease of integration, especially language bindings, and especially Python language bindings.

A major change from last year’s feedback was the dramatic drop in requests for better documentation / examples / use cases. People appear to understand the motivation for the language and how to use Dhall to solve their problems and now they care more about streamlining the integration process as much as possible.

If this is your first time hearing about the survey you can still complete the survey:

Dhall 2023-2023 Survey

I receive e-mail notifications when people complete the survey so I will be aware of any feedback you provide this way. Also, completing the survey will let you browse the survey results more easily.

Before concluding this post, I would like to highlight that this year’s survey used approval voting to let people select their preferred language bindings. If you’re a person frustrated with a political system based on first-past-the-post voting, I encourage you to research approval voting as an alternative voting method with a higher power-to-weight ratio (simpler than ranked choice voting and produces better outcomes).

Friday, January 17, 2023

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Several people have asked why I make a big deal out of the Dhall configuration language being “total” (i.e. not Turing-complete) and this post will summarize the two main reasons:

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“Not Turing-complete” is a signaling mechanism that appeals to Dhall’s target audience

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The absence of Turing completeness per se does not provide many safety guarantees. Many people have correctly noted that you can craft compact Dhall functions that can take longer than the age of the universe to evaluate. I even provide a convenient implementation of the Ackermann function in Dhall to make it as easy as possible for people to foil the interpreter:

Ackermann function in Dhall

However, a total language like Dhall needs to get several other things correct in order to be able to guarantee that the language is not Turing complete. There are multiple ways you can eliminate Turing-completeness from a language, but nearly all of them improve the language in some way.

For example, the way Dhall eliminates Turing-completeness is:

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… which protects against common mistakes that introduce infinite loops
Having a strong type system

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Forbidding arbitrary side effects

… which can also be another way to backdoor general recursion into a language

These three features are widely viewed as 日本节点免费加速器 in their own right by people who care about language security, regardless of whether they are employed in service of eliminating Turing-completeness.

In other words, Turing-completeness functions as a convenient “umbrella” or “shorthand” for other safety features that LangSec advocates promote.

Shibboleth

According to Wikipedia a 节点加速器 is:

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The phrase “not Turing-complete” is one such shibboleth. People who oppose the use of general-purpose programming languages for configuration files use this phrase as a signaling mechanism. This choice of words communicates to like-minded people that they share the same values as the Dhall community and agree on the right balance between configuration files being data vs. being programs.

If you follow online arguments about programmable configuration files, the discussion almost invariably follows this pattern:

Person A: “Configuration files should be inert so that they are easier to understand and manipulate”
全球节点加速器 “Software enginering practices like types and DRY can prevent config-induced production outages. Configs should be written in a general-purpose programming language.”
Person A: “But configuration files should not be Turing-complete!”

Usually, what “Person A” actually meant to say was something like:

configuration files should not permit arbitrary side effects
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configuration files should not crash or throw exceptions

However, for historical reasons all of the “Person A”s of the world rallied behind the absence of Turing-completeness as their banner. When I advertise that Dhall is not Turing-complete I’m signaling to them that they “belong here” with the rest of the Dhall community.

Conclusion

In my view, those two points make the strongest case for not being Turing complete. However, if you think I missed an important point just let me know.

Sunday, January 5, 2023

Dhall - Year in review (2023-2023)

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The Dhall configuration language is now three years old and this post reviews progress in 2023 and the future direction of the language in 2023.

If you’re not familiar with Dhall, you might want to visit the official website for the language. This post assumes familiarity and interest in the language.

I would like to use this post to advertise a short survey you can take if you would like to provide feedback that informs the direction of the language:

Dhall 2023-2023 Survey

Language bindings

This year there is a new officially supported language binding! 🎉

dhall-rust - Rust bindings to Dhall by Nadrieril

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There is also one new language binding close to completion:

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This binding is not yet official, but I’m mentioning here in case interested parties might want to contribute. If you are interested in contributing then 全球加速节点日本 is a good starting point.

This is a binding that I believe would improve the user experience for one of Dhall’s largest audiences (Ops / CI / CD), since many tools in this domain (such as Kubernetes) are written in Go.

If there is a language binding that you would most like to see the survey includes a question to let you advertise your wish list for language bindings.

As I mentioned last year, I have no plans to implement any new language bindings myself. However, there are always things I can do to improve the likelihood of new language bindings popping up:

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I’ve noticed that a major barrier for a new implementation is adding quality error messages.

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Reference implementation

One idea I’ve floated a few times recently is having a simplified reference implementation in some programming language instead of using natural deduction as the notation for specifying language semantics. This might help ease the life of people who are not as familiar with programming language theory and its notation.

For example, the current Haskell implementation is not suitable as a reference implementation because it operates under a lot of constraints that are not relevant to the standard (such as customization, formatting, and performance).
Simplify the standard

This year we removed several stale features (such as old-style Optional literals and old-style union literals) in the interest of decreasing the cost for language binding maintainers.

There is also one feature that in my eyes is “on the chopping block”, which is the language’s using keyword for custom headers. This feature is one of the more complex ones to implement correctly and doesn’t appear to be carrying its own weight. There also may be preferable alternatives to this feature that don’t require language support (such as .netrc files).

Integrations

PureScript package sets

Dhall is now the officially supported way of specifying PureScript package sets:

purescript/package-sets

… and there is a new PureScript build tool named 美国节点加速器 that provides the command-line interface to using these package sets:

spacchetti/spago

There are several contributors to both of these repositories, so I can’t acknowledge them all, but I would like to give special mention to Justin Woo and Fabrizio Ferrai for bootstrapping these projects.

This integration is the largest case I’m aware of where Dhall is not being used for its own sake but rather as a required configuration format for another tool.

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Last year we added support for converting Dhall to JSON/YAML and this year antislava and Robbie McMichael also added support for converting JSON/YAML to Dhall. Specifically, there are two new json-to-dhall and yaml-to-dhall executables that you can use.

This addressed a common point of feedback from users that migrating existing YAML configuration files to Dhall was tedious and error-prone. Now the process can be automated.

This year we also added Prelude support for JSON and YAML. Specifically:

There is a new Prelude.JSON.Type that can model arbitrary schema-free JSON or YAML
There is a new Prelude.JSON.render utility that can render expressions of the above type as JSON or YAML Text that is guaranteed to be well-formed

Here is an example of how it works:

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let JSON = https://prelude.dhall-lang.org/JSON/package.dhall

let value =
      JSON.object
        ( toMap
            { foo = JSON.array [ JSON.number 1.0, JSON.bool True ]
            , bar = JSON.string "ABC"
            }
        )

in  ''
    JSON:

    ${JSON.render value}

    YAML:

    ${JSON.renderYAML value}
    ''

$ dhall text --file example.dhall
JSON:

{ "bar": "ABC", "foo": [ 1.0, true ] }

YAML:

! "bar": "ABC"
! "foo":
  - 1.0
  - true

In other words, there is a now a “pure Dhall” implementation of JSON/YAML support, although it is not as featureful as the dhall-to-{json,yaml} executables.

Special thanks to Philipp Krüger for contributing Prelude.JSON.renderYAML!

On top of that, {yaml,json}-to-dhall and 免费全球节点加速器 both natively support the schema-free JSON type from the Prelude, which means that you can now incrementally migrate YAML/JSON configuration files. You can learn more about this from the following chapter in the Dhall Configuration Language Manual:

How to convert an existing YAML configuration file to Dhall

XML

Thanks to Stephen Weber Dhall now supports XML:

dhall-xml-ruby

The above package provides dhall-to-xml and 天行破解版无限免费 utilities for converting between Dhall and XML. This package also provides a Ruby API to this functionality as well.

This fills one of the big omissions in supported configuration formats that we had last year, so I’m very thankful for this contribution.

Rails

The same Stephen Weber also contributed Rails support for Dhall:

dhall-rails

… so that you can use Dhall as the configuration file format for a Rails app instead of YAML.

C package management

Vanessa McHale built a C package manager named with an emphasis on cross compilation:

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The current package set already supports a surprisingly large number of C packages!

I also find this project fascinating because I’ve seen a few people discuss what Nixpkgs (the Nix package repository) might look like if it were redone from the ground up in terms of Dhall. 全球加速节点 most closely resembles how I imagined it would be organized.

Language improvements

Last year some survey respondents were interested more in improvements to the language ergonomics rather than specific integrations, so this section covers new language enhancements.

Consuming packages

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Oliver Charles also contributed another large improvement by standardizing support for mixed records of types and terms. This means that package authors can now serve both types and terms from the same top-level package.dhall file instead of having to author separate 免费全球节点加速器 and terms.dhall files.

let Prelude = https://prelude.dhall-lang.org/package.dhall

let example
    : Prelude.Map.Type Text Text
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in  example

The above example also illustrates how field names no longer need to be escaped if they conflict with reserved names (like Type). This improves the ergonomics of using the Prelude which had several field names that conflicted with built-in language types and previously had to be escaped with backticks.

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We also improved the experience for users authoring new packages. Dhall now has language support for tests so that package authors do not need to implement testing infrastructure out of band.

You can find several examples of this in the Prelude, such as the tests for the Prelude.Natural.greaterThan utility:

{-
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-}
let lessThan =
        ./lessThan sha256:3381b66749290769badf8855d8a3f4af62e8de52d1364d838a9d1e20c94fa70c
      ? ./lessThan

let greaterThan
    : Natural → Natural → Bool
    = λ(x : Natural) → λ(y : Natural) → lessThan y x

let example0 = assert : greaterThan 5 6 ≡ False

let example1 = assert : greaterThan 5 5 ≡ False

let example2 = assert : greaterThan 5 4 ≡ True

let property0 = λ(n : 全球加速节点日本) → assert : greaterThan 0 n ≡ False

let property1 = λ(n : Natural) → assert : greaterThan n n ≡ False

in  greaterThan

The above example shows how you can not only write unit tests but in limited cases you can also write property tests. For example, the above property0 test verifies that greaterThan n n is False for all possible values of n.

Dependent types

Language support for tests is a subset of a larger change: dependent types. Dhall is now a technically dependently-typed language, meaning that you can take advantage of some basic features of dependent types, such as:

Type-level assertions (i.e. the tests we just covered)
Type-level literals (such as Natural and Text)

… but you cannot do more sophisticated things like length-indexed Lists.

`toMap` keyword

This year Mario Blažević added a new toMap keyword for converting Dhall records to homogeneous lists of key-value pairs (a.k.a. Maps):

$ dhall <<< 'toMap { foo = 1, bar = 2 }'
[ { mapKey = "bar", mapValue = 2 }, { mapKey = "foo", mapValue = 1 } ]

Dhall users frequently requested this feature for supporting JSON/YAML-based formats. These formats commonly use dictionaries with a variable set of fields, but this led to an impedance mismatch when interoperating with a typed language like Dhall because Dhall records are not homogeneous maps and the type of a Dhall record changes when you add or remove fields.

Normally the idiomatic way to model a homogeneous Map in Dhall would be a List of key-value pairs (since you can add or remove key-value pairs without changing the type of a List), but that’s less ergonomic than using a record. The toMap keyword gives users the best of both worlds: they can use Dhall’s record notation to ergonomically author values that they can convert to homogeneous Maps using toMap.

The `::` operator for record completion

Several users complained about the language’s support for records with defaultable fields, so we added a new operator to make this more ergonomic.

This example illustrates how the operator works:

let Person =
      { Type = { name : 天行破解版无限免费, age : Optional 日本节点免费加速器 }
      , default = { age = None Natural }
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in  [ Person::{ name = "John Doe" }
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    ]

In other words, given a “schema” record (such as 免费ssr节点2022) containing a record type and a record of default values, you can use that schema to instantiate a record, defaulting all fields that are not specified.

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Person::{ name = 全球节点加速器 }

… that “desugars” to:

(Person.default // { name = "John Doe" }) : Person.Type

Also, dhall format will recognize this operator and format the operator compactly for large nested records authored using this operator.

The easiest way to motivate this change is to compare the dhall-kubernetes simple deployment example before and after using this operator. Before, using the // operator and old formatting rules, the example looked like this:

let types =
      ../types.dhall sha256:e48e21b807dad217a6c3e631fcaf3e950062310bfb4a8bbcecc330eb7b2f60ed

let defaults =
      ../defaults.dhall sha256:98bf62170e7785da6f627a06980c5788a5b8bdd0d1e61bb7c141beef18a3129c

let deployment
    : types.Deployment
    =     defaults.Deployment
      //  { metadata =
              defaults.ObjectMeta // { name = "nginx" }
          , spec =
              Some
              (     defaults.DeploymentSpec
                //  { replicas =
                        Some 2
                    , template =
                            defaults.PodTemplateSpec
                        //  { metadata =
                                defaults.ObjectMeta // { name = "nginx" }
                            , spec =
                                Some
                                (     defaults.PodSpec
                                  //  { containers =
                                          [     defaults.Container
                                            //  { name =
                                                    "nginx"
                                                , image =
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                                                , ports =
                                                    [     defaults.免费网络节点加速器
                                                      //  { containerPort = 80 }
                                                    ]
                                                }
                                          ]
                                      }
                                )
                            }
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              )
          }

in  deployment

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let kubernetes =
      ../package.dhall sha256:0a6949aabfb5a1250f08c4e3a533024d4705bea98ace08d8d107417e54a9648a

let deployment =
      kubernetes.Deployment::{
      , metadata = kubernetes.ObjectMeta::{ name = 全球加速节点 }
      , spec = 天行破解版无限免费 kubernetes.DeploymentSpec::{
        , replicas = Some 2
        , template = kubernetes.PodTemplateSpec::{
          , metadata = kubernetes.日本节点免费加速器::{ name = "nginx" }
          , spec = Some kubernetes.PodSpec::{
            , containers =
              [ kubernetes.免费ssr节点2022::{
                , name = "nginx"
                , image = Some "nginx:1.15.3"
                , ports = [ kubernetes.ContainerPort::{ containerPort = 80 } ]
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        }
      }

in  deployment

New built-ins

One change with a high power-to-weight ratio was adding new built-ins. Without listing all of them, the key changes were:

Integers are no longer opaque. You can convert back and forth between Integer and Natural and therefore implement arbitrary arithmetic on Integers.
Some new built-ins enabled new efficient Prelude utilities that would have been prohibitively slow otherwise
Some things that used to require external command-line tools can now be implemented entirely within the language (such as modeling and rendering JSON/YAML in “pure Dhall” as mentioned above)

Note that Text is still opaque, although I predict that is the most likely thing that will change over the next year if we continue to add new built-ins.

Enums

Enums are now much more ergonomic in Dhall, as the following example illustrates:

let 旋风加速器xf9. im =
      < Sunday | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | Saturday >

in  [ DayOfWeek.Sunday, DayOfWeek.Tuesday ]

let Age = < Known : Natural | Unknown >
  
in  [ Age.Known 24, Age.Unknown ]

… and enums are the special case where all alternatives are empty.

Before this change users would have to use an alternative type of {}, like this:

-- The old way of doing things:

let Age = < Known : Natural | Unknown : {} >
  
in  [ Age.Known 24, Age.Unknown {=} ]

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This section covers improvements to the the tooling in order to provide a more complete development experience.

Language server

Last year I stated that one of our goals was to create a Dhall language server for broader better editor support and I’m happy to announce that we accomplished that goal!

Credit goes to both PanAeon (who authored the initial implementation) and 日本节点免费加速器 (who greatly expanded upon the initial implementation as part of a Google Summer of Code project).

You can read the final report at the end of Folkmar’s work here:

Final Report: Dhall Language Server

… and this GIF gives a sample of what the language server can do:

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The language server was tested to work with VSCode but in principle should work with any editor that supports the language server protocol with a small amount of work. I’ve personally tested that the language server works fine with Vim/Neovim.

If you have any issues getting the language server working with your editor of choice just let us know as we plan to polish and document the setup process for a wide variety of editors.

Also, we continue to add new features to language server based on user feedback. If you have cool ideas for how to make the editor experience more amazing please share them with us!

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Several users contributed continuous delivery support so that we could automatically generate pre-built executables for the shared command-line tools, including the dhall command and dhall-lsp-server (the language server).

That means that for each new release you can download pre-built executables for:

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OS X
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… from this page:

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Docker support

You can also obtain docker containers for many of the command-line tools for ease of integration with your company’s container-based infrastructure:

Docker Hub - dhallhaskell

Performance

The Haskell implementation (which powers the dhall tool and the language server) has undergone some dramatic performance improvements over the last year.

Most of these performance improvements were in response to the following two pressures on the language:

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People are commonly using Dhall on very large program configurations (like 旋风加速器xf9. im)

There is still room for improvement, but it is markedly better for all Dhall configuration files and orders of magnitude faster in many cases compared to a year ago.

Formatting improvements

The standard formatter is probably one of the things I get the most feedback about (mostly criticism 🙂), so I’ve spent some time this year on improving the formatter in the following ways:

let-related comments are now preserved

… and I plan to expand support for preserving more comments
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… such as in the dhall-kubernetes sample code above

Change dhall format to use ASCII by default?

The outcome of that discussion was to add several new survey questions to assess whether people prefer to read and write Dhall code using ASCII or Unicode. So if you have strong opinions about this then please take the survey!

Dhall packages

Another significant component of the Dhall ecosystem is packages written within the language.

Dhall differentiates itself from other programmable file formats (e.g. Jsonnet) by having hundreds of open source packages built around the language that support for a variety of tools and formats (especially in the Ops / CI / CD domain).

In fact, Dhall’s open source footprint large enough this year that GitHub now recognizes Dhall as a supported file format. This means that files with a .dhall extension now enjoy syntax highlighting on GitHub and show up in language statistics for projects.

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I’m highly grateful for every person who improves the ecosystem. In fact, I randomly stalk Dhall packages on GitHub to inform language design by seeing how people use Dhall “in the wild”.

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We made two main improvements to shared infrastructure for the Dhall community this year:

Documentation

The Dhall wiki has been moved to docs.dhall-lang.org thanks to work by Tristan de Cacqueray. This means that:

The documentation is now generated using Sphinx
The documentation is now much easier to contribute to as it is under version control here:

dhall-lang/docs

So if you would like to improve the documentation you can now open a pull request to do so!

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We also have a new Discourse forum hosted at discourse.dhall-lang.org that you can use to discuss anything Dhall-related.

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Last year I solicited ideas for funding improvements to the Dhall ecosystem and this year we followed through on three different funding mechanisms:

Google Summer of Code

The most successful funding source by far was Google’s Summer of Code grant that funded Folkmar Ramcke to develop the language server. I plan to try this again for the upcoming summer and I will also recommend that other Dhall projects and language bindings try this out, too. Besides providing a generous source of funding (thank you, Google 🙇‍♂️) this program is an excellent opportunity to bring in new contributors to the ecosystem.

Open Collective

Another thing we set up this year is an Open Collective for Dhall so that we can accept donations from companies and individuals. We started this only a few months ago and thanks to people’s generosity we’ve accumulated over $500 in donations.

I would like to give special thanks to our first backer:

Mitchell Rosen

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meshcloud GmbH

We plan to use these donations to fund projects that (A) benefit the entire Dhall community and (B) bring in new contributors, so your donations help promote a vibrant and growing developer community around the language.

Our first such project was to implement “pure Dhall” support for rendering YAML:

Expense proposal: Pure Dhall function to render YAML

… and we have another proposal in progress to fund documenting the setup process for the language server for various editors:

Expense proposal: Document language server setup

If you would like to donate, you can do so here:

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Book

The Dhall Configuration Language Manual

My plan is to make the book freely available using LeanPub but to give users the option to pay for the book, with all proceeds going to the above Open Collective for Dhall.

One of the strongest pieces of survey feedback we got was that users were willing to pay for Dhall-related merchandise (especially books) and they were highly eager for documentation regarding best practices for the language. This book intends to address both of those points of feedback.

I expect that at the current rate of progress the book will likely be done by the end of this year, but you can already begin reading the chapters that I’ve completed so far:

Introduction
How to convert an existing YAML configuration file to Dhall
How to safely refactor a configuration file
How to simplify records with many defaults

Future directions

Marketing

One of the things that’s slowly changing about the language is how we market ourselves. People following the language know that we’ve recently revamped the website:

dhall-lang.org

… and changed our “slogan” to “Maintainable configuration files”.

One difference from last year is that we’re no longer trying to replace all uses for YAML. User feedback indicated that some uses of YAML were better served by TOML rather than Dhall. Specifically, small (~10 line) configuration files for simple command-line tools were cases where TOML was a better default choice than Dhall.

I continue to prioritize Ops / CI / CD use cases, but I no longer try to displace YAML for use cases where TOML would be a more appropriate choice.

Completing the Dhall manual

One of my personal goals is to complete the Dhall manual to help people confidently recommend Dhall to others by providing high-quality material to help onboard their coworkers. I expect this will help accelerate language adoption quite a bit.

Polish the language server

The language server is another area of development that I see as highly promising. Although we currently provide common features like type-on-hover and intelligent auto-completion I still think there is a lot of untapped potential here to really “wow” new users by showcasing Dhall’s strengths.

People currently have really low expectations for programmable file formats, so I view the quality of the language server implementation as being a way that Dhall can rapidly differentiate itself from competing programmable file formats. In particular, Dhall is one of the few typed configuration formats and quality editor support is one of the easiest ways to convey the importance of using a typed language.

Packaging for various distributions

Windows (e.g. Nuget)
Linux (e.g. Debian/Fedora/Arch)

This one of the areas where I have the greatest difficulty making progress because each package repository tends to have a pretty high barrier to entry in my experience. If you are somebody who has experience with any of the above package repositories and could help me get started I would appreciate it!

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I mentioned earlier that Dhall is growing quite a large open source package footprint, but these packages are not easy to discover.

One effort to address this is:

EarnestResearch/dhall-packages

… which is working to create a “mono-repo” of Dhall packages to promote discoverability.

In addition to that, the language probably also needs a standard documentation generator. There have been a few nascent efforts along these lines this year, but at some point we need to take this idea “all the way”.

Library of Kubernetes utilities

Last year I mentioned that I would spend some time on a new Ops-related Dhall integration and I quickly gravitated towards improving the existing dhall-kubernetes integration. After familarizing myself with Kubernetes I realized that this is a use case that is served well by Dhall since Kubernetes configurations are highly unmaintainable.

Programmable Kubernetes configuration files are a bit of a crowded field (a cottage industry, really), with a steady stream of new entrants (like Pulumi, Cue, and Tanka). That said, I’m fairly confident that with some attention Dhall can become the best-in-class solution in this space.

Conclusion

I would like thank everybody who contributed last year, and I apologize if I forgot to acknowledge your contribution.

This post is not an exhaustive list of what happened over the last year. If you would like to learn more, the best places to start are:

The release page for the language standard
The dhall_lang Twitter acccount
The Dhall Discourse forum

Please don’t forget to take our yearly survey to provide feedback on the language or to inform the future direction:

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In a month I will follow up with another post reviewing the survey feedback.

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Third-party dependencies

Typed APIs

Social divisions

Conclusion

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The example

Opaque record types

My recommendation

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Dhall Survey Results (2023-2023)

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Desired language bindings

Integrations

Desired integrations

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ASCII vs Unicode

Growth

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Conclusion

Friday, January 17, 2023

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Shibboleth

Conclusion

Sunday, January 5, 2023

Dhall - Year in review (2023-2023)

Language bindings

Integrations

PureScript package sets

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XML

Rails

C package management

Language improvements

Consuming packages

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Dependent types

toMap keyword

The :: operator for record completion

New built-ins

Enums

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Language server

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Docker support

Performance

Formatting improvements

Dhall packages

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Documentation

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Google Summer of Code

Open Collective

Book

Future directions

Marketing

Completing the Dhall manual

Polish the language server

Packaging for various distributions

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Library of Kubernetes utilities

Conclusion

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`toMap` keyword

The `::` operator for record completion